Following in the Footsteps of Saint Patrick

Saint Patrick

Most school children know that Saint Patrick came to Ireland in the year 432 AD. We know from ecclesiastical history that he travelled to the west of Ireland.  After visiting Elphin and Croghan, he came around the north of Loch Techet, the ancient name for Lough Gara, through the present townlands of Cuppenagh and Templeronan . It is said that he went to Gregraidhe of Loch Techet. The Gregraidhe (horse people) or Gregory comprised the baronies of Coolavin in Sligo and Costello in Mayo. According to an entry in the Annals of Tigernach (AU 665) Cummeni,  Abbot of Clonmacnois, was of the Gregraige of Loch Techet. 

Patrick’s two ‘Lives’ by Muirchu  and Tirechan written possibly between 661-668 and 665-680 claim to be using oral tradition from known people such as St Ultan of Ardbraccan, Co Meath. Both ‘Lives’ are preserved in the ‘Book of Armagh’. The ‘Tripartite’ Life (‘3 parts’, for public reading) is dated c 895-901.

St. Patrick spent many years in Ireland although exactly how long we do not know. During this time he travelled extensively. He writes: ‘I journeyed among you, and everywhere, for your sake, often in danger, even to the outermost parts beyond which there is nothing, places where no one had ever arrived to baptise or ordain clergy or confirm the people’. When the tribe responded to the Gospel, an enclosure would be set aside, with boundaries and ‘termon’ crosses, sometimes with a ditch, sometimes with a wall, clearly marking out to everyone that the area was sacred. Within it a tiny church of wattle and daub would be built.

Many monasteries were built at tribal meeting places or on tribal boundaries.  As monastic communities grew they attracted a resident local community. The monasteries provided for the spiritual needs of local families and taught the children. The monastery and the village grew together. The monks undertook tasks such as the creating and copying of literature and highly specialised metal-ware.

This was a time when tribal chiefs donated land for monasteries and the abbots appointed by them were still to a degree controlled by those chiefs. The organisation of Irish society at this time was rural and based on the extended family. For example, a family might live in isolated farmsteads, defended by ditches and banks evidenced by the large number of ringforts found throughout Ireland. Several extended families formed a clan, which in turn, formed a small kingdom.  Each clan had its warriors, druids and slaves. Neighbouring tribes were often related by blood. The main occupation was cattle-breeding and cattle raids were common. Fighting and violence were prevalent in this tribal society.

An account of St Patrick’s missionary activities was written sometime around 680AD by Tirechan, the Bishop of North Mayo. According to Tirechan, Patrick came from the plain of Mirteach, between Castlerea and Ballaghaderreen, to a place called Drummut Cerrigi or Drumad of the Ciarraige. This is now the townland of Drumad in the Parish of Tibohine. It is said that he dug a well here and no stream went into it or came out of it, but it was always full. The well was named Bithlan (i.e. ever full). 

Here, the saint found two brothers, Bibar and Lochru, the sons of Tamanchend, fighting about the division of their father's lands. St. Patrick reconciled them by a miracle, and he blessed them and made peace between them.  The brothers gave their land to Patrick and he founded a church there.

Patrick then went to Aileach Esrachta which was at Telach Liac or Telach na Cloch, which later became known as Tullaganrock in the Parish of Kilcolman. It is said that local people were afraid of the stranger and the eight or nine men accompanying him, so they decided to kill him. The crowd was restrained by a brave man named Hercait of the race of Nath i. Hercait and his son Feradach were babtised and Feradach joined St Patrick. Patrick gave Feradach a new name calling him Sachail. He eventually became bishop and was associated with a famous church called Basilica Sanctorum which is now known as Baslik - a parish between Castlerea and Tulsk.

The area south of the Lough Gara was called Airteach in the early medieval period.  Situated in this area are the remains of an early ecclesiastical site, Kilnamanagh. This site is classified as an early church by Gwynn and Hadcock (1970, 394), who make a reference to Tírechan’s Life of Patrick and connect the church with St Patrick and Bishop Do-bonne (Dabone).

He afterwards founded Cill-Atrachta, in Gregraidhe. St Attracta, Talan’s daughter, received the veil from Patrick's hand. Patrick left a teisc and chalice with Atracht, Today, this church, founded by St. Patrick for St. Attracta, is known as Killaraght. The Feast of Saint Attracta is celebrated throughout the diocese of Achonry on the 11th August.

St. Patrick visited the area of Boyle (Mainistir na Búille). Here, it is said that he was received badly, the people gave a deaf ear to his instructions and even carried off his horses. The Saint denounced their hardness of heart, and having a foreknowledge of their future punishment said: "Your seed shall serve the seed of your brother for ever." 

Patrick decided to revisit some of the churches which he had founded in Tyrerril and Gregraighe, and to preach the Gospel again to the people dwelling on the river Buill (Boyle) and through Moylurg. While crossing a ford on the river, his chariot was upset and he was thrown into the waters. This ford was called Ath Carbuid, or the ford of the chariot (vadum quadrigae).

The area around Lough Gara is rich in monastic sites including: Monasteraden, Templeronan, Killaraght and Kilnamanagh. Other ecclesiastical nearby are: Cloonshanville and Tibohine to the south; Kilcolman to the west and Carrowntemple and Kilfree in the north.  Not all of these Early Christian sites can be directly linked to St. Patrick but his influence has been enormous and lasting, despite the many challenges of the twenty-first century.

Exploring Monasteraden's Ecclesiastical Roots

The village of Monasteraden (Mainistir Aodain) is believed to have got its name from an early ecclesiastical site founded there by Saint Aidan. However, this saint should not be confused with the Saint Aidan who founded a monastery on the island of Lindisfarne,  Northumbria, in the seventh century.

According to Gwynn and Hadcock (1988, 398), this is an early monastery that was probably founded by Aedhan O Fiachrach (d. 570: AU). Ui Fiachrach descended from Fiachra brother of Brion. There were two chief branches – those of the north and those of the south – the latter otherwise known as Cenelnaeda. The northern Ui Fiachrach occupied the greater part of Co Mayo and part of Co Sligo.

Monasteraden Graveyard, which overlooks Lough Gara, is unique in that it is one of a few circular graveyards still in use in Ireland. It is thought to contain the remains of an old church although the exact location is not known. The only mention of a church comes from 1836 when it was described as ‘the ruins of an old church’.  The graveyard and early ecclesiastical site are surrounded by a stone wall, resembling a large cashel.

This graveyard also contains a souterrain or underground chamber which consists of a drystone-built passage measuring roughly five metres in length, 1.5 metres wide and 1.08 metres high.  It has been suggested that these structures served as food stores or hiding places during times of strife. In 1985-6 a circular drystone-buit kiln was discovered within the enclosure. A quantity of charcoal and charred cereal grains were found in the kiln. The kiln was sealed and a stone seat now marks the location. The Monasteraden Graveyard also contains what archaeologists call a ballaun stone. This is a lozenge-shaped stone with a shallow depression in the centre of the upper surface. Such stones are frequently associated with early Christian sites.

We know from ecclesiastical history that as Saint Patrick travelled west and, after visiting Elphin and Croghan, he came around the north of Lough Gara through the present townlands of Cuppenagh and Templeronan.  It is said that St Patrick went to Gregraidhe of Loch Techet  which was the ancient name of Loch Ui Ghadhra (i.e. O’Gara’s Lake) or, as it is known today, Lough Gara. The Gregraidhe or Gregory comprised the baronies of Coolavin in Sligo and Costello in Mayo. The O’Garas were driven out of their lands by the Jordans and Costellos in the 14th century and settled Coolavin. They erected a castle at Moygara or Muy O’Gara.

To the east of Lough Gara are the remains of the early medieval monastery of St Attracta. The complex consists of a graveyard, a church and a holy well. The monastery is mentioned in early medieval sources and is believed to have been founded in the sixth century. The saint is said to have been the daughter of the druid Talan Cathbadin, son of Cathbadh of the Gregraidh of Loch Techet. Attracta received the blessing of St Patrick. The Feast of Saint Attracta is celebrated throughout the diocese of Achonry on the 11th August. The monastery of St Aedhan, like the ecclesiastical site of St Attracta in Killaraght, is located on what was the boundary between the living settlement at the tme and areas considered important in earlier periods.

Monasteraden is one of several monastic sites around Lough Gara including: Templeronan, Killaraght and Kilnamanagh. Other ecclesiastical nearby are: Cloonshanville and Tibohine to the south; Kilcolman to the west and Carrowntemple and Kilfree in the north.  Sadly, nothing of the old church is visible today.

Children’s Burial Ground: Creggan, Co. Roscommon

Mattie Lennon, writing in Ireland’s Own magazine recently, described a burial ground for unbaptised children off the coast of County Donegal.  It is called Oilean na Marbh (the island of the dead). It reminded me of the children’s burial ground I knew as a child growing up in County Roscommon.

This graveyard, known locally as Caltragh, is located within a ringfort in the townland of Creggan near Ballaghaderreen. It consists of a rectangular grass-covered area approximately 21m x 14m. The ringfort is roughly circular measuring 57m x 53m and is partly surrounded by a drystone wall. Mature deciduous trees are growing inside the perimeter making it visible for some distance.

In the background: Children's Burial Ground
Creggan, County Roscommon

Children’s burial grounds are thought to have been first established in the medieval period.  In the fifth century AD, Augustine of Hippo declared that all unbaptised people were guilty of original sin. This prompted a debate in the Church which was to last for several centuries.  

From the sixth century the burial of unbaptised individuals in consecrated ground was forbidden. In the twelfth century the church declared that all newborn children had to be baptised. Parents had to bury their unbaptised children in alternative unconsecrated burial grounds.  As Mattie Lennon points out, we can scarcely imagine the heartbreak of the women in Ireland who were left to grieve silently as their babies were taken away at night to be buried secretly.  

Although children’s burial grounds are normally associated with stillborn and unbaptised children, others were buried there including people who committed suicide, mentally disabled, the shipwrecked, criminals, famine victims, strangers and even women who had not been ‘churched’ after childbirth.

These burial grounds are frequently associated with earlier monuments such as early/medieval ecclesiastical sites and ringforts. It is not unusual to find ogham stones at these sites. Some experts have noted that children’s burial grounds are often located close to field, lakeshore, seashore or townland boundaries. Archaeologists have suggested that this choice of location may have served to separate these individuals from ‘normal’ society.

The County Roscommon Graveyard Survey carried out in 2005 identified a total of 287 graveyards in the county. Children’s burial grounds accounted for 25% of the total surveyed. Over half the graveyards in the county are recorded on the Record of Monuments and Places. This is important as it means that these sites are protected under the National Monuments Act 1930-2004. They are nearly always listed on ordnance survey maps as Cillin/ Killeen, Lios/Lisheen, Caltragh, Teampaillin, or simply as Children’s Burial Ground.

Individual burials are frequently marked by small stones placed around the margins of the graves with the remains interred in a cist-like structure. Wooden coffins were often used while some individuals were wrapped in shrouds fixed with pins. In some respects, these burials were similar to those in contemporary consecrated burial grounds and simple stone grave-markers are still to be seen in old graveyards.

It is now believed that many of these ancient burial grounds are much older than previously thought. An excavation of a cillin in Tonybaun, County Mayo in 2003, identified a total of 248 burials of which 147 were infants and 23 were children aged between two and six years. None of the burials were earlier than the fifteenth century.

This excavation revealed that many of the bodies had been placed in wooden coffins. Some 55 adult burials were identified providing evidence of the practice of using such burial grounds for adults who were not considered eligible for burial in consecrated ground. The presence of items such as shrouds, pins, buttons and a small crucifix show that care and religious observance was associated with these burials.

In 2005/06 archaeologists excavated a children’s burial ground at Carrowkeel, County Galway. This site comprised an early medieval enclosure ditch with a cemetery in the eastern half. The remains of 158 individuals, mainly children, were identified with the burials taking place over 800 years from the seventh to the fifteenth century.

In 2004, Pope John Paul 11 appointed a Commission to study Limbo and it reported its findings in 2007. The report, signed by Pope Benedict XV1, stated that it reflected a ‘restrictive view of salvation’ and that it was reasonable to hope that the souls of unbaptised infants are admitted to Heaven by a merciful God.

As Mattie Lennon states, such burial places serve as a reminder of our unenlightened past and a monument to centuries of heartbreak.  For this reason, children’s burial grounds deserve to be preserved, suitably marked and maintained.

Drumanone Portal Tomb

Drumanone Portal Tomb - Co. Roscommon

Drumanone portal tomb or Dolmen is situated three kilometres west of Boyle town, Co. Roscommon, off the R294. It is one of the largest monuments of its type in Ireland and is thought to have been built sometime before 2000BC. This tomb lies some 300m north of the Boyle River close to Lough Gara. In order to view the tomb you have to cross the railway line with care ensuring that you close the gate behind you.

There are approximately 174 of these monuments in the country with the majority located in the northern half of the island. The tombs generally consist of two large boulders or portal-stones defining the entrance and a back-stone, all of which support the roof-stone or capstone.

Archaeologists believe that our ancient ancestors may have used a combination of wooden rollers, ropes and man/animal power to manoeuvre the giant stones into position. Ramps made of earth and stone may have been used to haul the large roof stones into place.

The rectangular chamber of the Drumanone tomb measures 2.2m x 1.95m and faces north east. The capstone measures approximately 4m x 3m. The sides of the chamber each consist of a single stone. The capstone has slipped back from the two portal stones forming the entrance and now looks like some kind of Stone Age satellite dish. The western stone has been tilted over by the weight of the slipped capstone and is now supported by a steel girder. The 1.2m space between the portals is closed by the door slab which is almost as tall as the portals. It is thought that these large stones may have come from the Curlew Mountains. A slight grass-covered cairn surrounds the stones

The Drumanone tomb was excavated by archaeologists in 1954 and was found to contain a considerable amount of cremated bone, indicating that the tomb was used to bury several individuals. A small polished stone axe was also found which archaeologists believe came from the Tievebulliagh Axe Factory in Co. Antrim. It is estimated that some 133 such stone axes were found along the shores of nearby Lough Gara. Other finds from this site include two flint flakes and a chert core scraper. Archaeologists believe that the presence of ‘Bann’ flakes at Drumanone may suggest the re-use of the site of an earlier structure. The land on which the tomb was built might, for example, have been a place for meeting or religious activity.

Poulnabrone Portal Tomb - Co. Clare

The iconic megalithic portal tomb at Poulnabrone in Co. Clare, one of Ireland’s most photographed archaeological sites, has revealed a wealth of information about the lives and burial customs of Ireland’s first farming communities. Here, archaeologists uncovered the remains of twenty two people, sixteen adults and six children, within the interior of the tomb including males and females.  It is thought that the bodies were firstly stored or buried elsewhere until they decomposed. The bones were then moved to the portal tomb for final burial.

Examination of the skeletal remains has given archaeologists an insight into the lives of the people who lived and built these tombs in the Neolithic or New Stone Age. They appear to have lived relatively short lives with only one person being older than 40. The arthritic condition of many of the neck and shoulder bones indicates that they worked hard and were used to carrying heavy loads. Examination of the teeth revealed that they suffered from periods of either malnutrition or infections, especially between the ages of three and six.

Archaeologists also found evidence that some of those buried at the Poulnabrone site had suffered violence.  One body, for example, had sustained a depressed fracture of the skull, possibly caused by being hit by a stone. In the case of another body, a fragment of a flint, probably an arrow head was found embedded in a hip bone.  It is believed that the Poulnabrone burials were deposited over a period of 600 years, between 3800 and 3200 BC, suggesting that the monument was probably an important burial place where only certain members of the community were allowed to be interred.

Whilst archaeologists do not have an actual date for the building of the Drumanone tomb it is believed to be over 4,000 years old and is an impressive example of its type. The findings from Poulnabrone and other similar sites give us an insight into the lives of the people who built Drumanone.

Reference: SMR Number RO005-105 (Archaeological Survey of Ireland, Record Details) on http://www.archaeology.ie. Compiled by Michael Moore. Posted24 August 2010

Carrowmore Megalithic Cemetery, Co. Sligo

Carrowmore Megalithic Cemetery - Tomb 51

Today, Ireland is experiencing unprecedented austerity measures, farmers are unable to feed their cattle and fish stocks are depleted. However, the situation was not always so dire. Over 7,000 years ago, the rich marine resources around our shores enabled our ancestors to develop a more settled way of life even as hunter-gatherers and to, eventually, become some of Western Europe’s first farmers.

More than 6,000 years ago, the Stone Age peoples of Western Europe began to build stone monuments over their dead as tombs and ceremonial places. This was the beginning of what has become known as the megalithic tradition of the Neolithic period. The reason for this cultural change in Neolithic Europe was largely unknown for many years.

Carrowmore, Co. Sligo, is the largest cemetery of megalithic tombs in Ireland and is also among the country’s oldest, with dates ranging between 4,500 – 3,500 BC. Archaeologists have recorded over sixty tombs of which some thirty are visible today. The oldest tombs at Carrowmore were built more than 2,000 years before the pyramids of Egypt. The idea of erecting megalithic tombs developed within Stone Age societies of Western Europe in the fifth millennium BC during the transition between the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods.

Archaeologists believe that originally there may have been a 100 and, possibly, more tombs in the Carrowmore cemetery. However, over the past 300 years, quarrying and land clearance have destroyed many of them. In his survey of the area in 1837, George Petrie marked and numbered 68 sites at Carrowmore.

Carrowmore megalithic cemetery covers an area of about one square kilometre.  Most of the tombs have been arranged in an oval-shaped layout and the entrances tend to face the central part of the cemetery. The meaning and function of these early stone monuments remain one of the mysteries of archaeology. It is known that the Megalithic tradition died out about 5,000 years ago when it was at its peak. Well known monuments such as Stonehenge, Newgrange, Knowth and Dowth, were all built around this time.

There are some 1,500 recorded Megalithic monuments in Ireland. These ancient monuments have been classified into four types: court tombs, portal tombs, passage tombs and wedge tombs. Cremation was the most common way of disposing of the dead in passage tombs. Inhumation was mainly used in the case of portal tombs.

No passage tombs have been recorded at Carrowmore and only Tomb 51, which is also known as Listoghil, shows the remains of a cairn. This tomb stands at the highest point of the Carrowmore cemetery. It is 34m in diameter making it the largest tomb in the Carrowmore complex. It was partly excavated in the 1990s by the Swedish archaeologist Goran Burenhult.

Tomb 51 - Central Chamber

The central chamber was constructed as a rectangular cist or chamber and covered with a flat, limestone roof-slab. In 1993, prehistoric artwork was discovered on the front of the roof-slab.

During the building of this tomb, ritual activities took place involving extensive fires and these have been dated to 3,650 – 3,450 BC. A number of pits had also been dug during these ritual activities. Two cremations containing the remains of several humans were deposited in the circle behind the southern and western kerbstones and these were dated to 3,550 BC. The recovery of a piece of human skull dated to 3,500 BC shows that inhumations took place within the building period.

Excavation of Tomb No. 4 revealed 32 kilos of cremated human bone which had been deposited in the

Tomb 4

central chamber and in two secondary cists. It is believed that this amount of bone fragments represents as many as 50 individuals. The main grave goods recovered from this tomb were mushroom-headed antler pins which had been burnt together with the dead bodies on the funeral pyre. The secondary cists also contained stone beads.

Typical artefacts from the Carrowmore megalithic cemetery consist of mushroom-headed antler pins, stone/clay balls, beads and pendants. Archaeologists believe that the earliest monuments were built by people who were mainly hunter-gatherers but were turning to cattle breeding. The rich marine resources in this area made it possible for people to settle down on the peninsula and develop a relatively stable settlement pattern as hunter-gatherers, probably as early as 8,000 – 9,000 years ago (7,000 – 6,000 BC). Fishing, hunting for seal and other mammals, and the gathering of shellfish contributed to the development of a social structure normally found among farmers.

The tombs in the Carrowmore complex may have been signs of prestige in this ancient society or may have marked the tribe’s ceremonial and burial place. Each tomb probably belonged to a separate clan or extended family. With the passing of time, the settled pattern of life, together with the growing population, required a more active system of food production and farming was born.

The earliest dates from the excavated tombs at Carrowmore centre around 5,000 BC with the latest about 3,000 BC. Archaeologists believe that most of the monuments were erected and used between 4,300 and 3,500 BC. All of the tombs had been used for secondary burials during the late Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages.

The dates from Carrowmore confirm what is known about the development of the megalithic traditions in Brittany and France, where very early megalithic activity can be associated with late Mesolithic and early Neolithic societies forming complex social systems based on a rich maritime economy.

Based on ‘The Megalithic Cemetery of Carrowmore, Co. Sligo’ – Goran Burenhult (2001)

Clogher Boulder Burial

The Clogher Boulder Burial consists of a quite large stone block resting on three smaller stone ‘feet’, thereby, resembling a small, short-legged portal tomb. Normally these sites are found in counties Kerry and Cork where around 80% of all known boulder burials are located. For this reason, its presence in this area is unusual. Excavations of such sites have suggested a Middle Bronze Age date for this burial monument of around 1500 -1300 BC.

In the main, such burials are single and contained within a small chamber made from stones. They may be found on their own or within or around stone circles.  The boulders frequently bear cup marks and were often picked for their attractive shape or rock patterns. The Clogher example contains indentations which, curiously, resemble the imprints of a very large thumb and four fingers. These markings have given rise to a local belief that they were made by a ‘giant’ throwing the large boulder.

Boulder burials consist of a single large coverstone or boulder resting on three or more smaller flat-topped supporting stones. Sometimes, as in the case of the Clogher example, small wedge-stones are placed between the coverstone and the supporting stones in order to make the upper surface a level plane. They differ from other types of megalithic tombs by the low stature of the supporting stones which act as props for the coverstone rather than as the walls of a burial chamber. Boulder burials stand above the ground and there is no evidence that they were covered by cairns or mounds. Archaeologists believe that many of these monuments were built in the middle or later Bronze Age as memorials over burial deposits and date from 1500-800 BC.

Excavation of some boulder burials have revealed a pit containing fragments of cremated bone and/or charcoal or burnt soil. It is thought that boulder burials may have acted as memorials over burial deposits.

The earliest evidence we currently have for human activity in Ireland dates to around 7000 BC. The physical remains left in the landscape are the only sources of information we have about our prehistoric ancestors. Of all the remains left behind by these people, their burial monuments have provided us with our most prolific source of artefacts and human remains and much of what we know about the prehistoric people of Ireland comes from this source. 

In County Sligo, the earliest signs of human settlement date to the Mesolithic period (Middle Stone Age - c.7000-4000 BC). The presence of these early hunter-gatherer communities who exploited the rivers, lakes, marine and other natural resources around them is indicated by archaeological finds from nearby Lough Gara and from investigations at Carrowmore.

Carrowmore is the largest megalithic cemetery in Ireland and amongst the oldest and most important in Europe. It covers an area of about 0.5 km2 in the shadow of Knocknarea to the west. Some of the excavated tombs have produced dates between 4840 – 4370 BC. 

Overlooking Carrowmore megalithic cemetery on the summit of Knocknarea Mountain is the huge flat-topped cairn called ’Miosgan Meadhbha’ (Maeve’s Cairn), which is 55m in diameter and 10m high. There are spectacular views from here and the cairn is visible for miles around. It is unexcavated but may cover a passage tomb, possibly dating to c.3000 BC. Although the area of County Sligo is only 2.5% of the total area of Ireland, c.220 megalithic monuments are found here - 15% of Ireland’s total number (c.1450).

In addition to these highly visible types of burial monument, prehistoric people in Ireland also buried their dead in the ground more discreetly, sometimes in a stone-lined box, or cist, or even in a simple urn without any associated mound or structure on the ground surface to mark its presence. A typical cist burial comprises a rectangular or polygonal structure, constructed from stone slabs set on edge and covered by one or more horizontal slabs or capstones. Cists burials may contain an inhumation, a cremation, or both. They may be built on the ground surface or sunk into the ground or set within a cemetery cairn or cemetery mound. They date  mainly to the Early Bronze Age from around 2400 BC to 1500BC. A number of such burials have been found in the Monasteraden area.

The Clogher Boulder Burial is unusual for this part of Ireland and is further evidence of the rich and varied archaeological heritage to be found in and around Lough Gara. It is depicted in this stain glass panel which I made some time ago.

Clogher Stone Fort or Cashel

One of the better known ancient monuments in the Monasteraden area is Clogher stone fort or cashel (Irish caiseal from Latin castellum). It is located within the Coolavin Demesne a short distance west of Monasteraden Village. This stone fort is well preserved having undergone extensive re-building in the 19^th century.

It consists of an area enclosed by a circular stone wall which is 26m in diameter. The wall is constructed with large boulders at the base and progressively smaller slabs towards the top. There are a series of stepped ramps leading to wall walks, which allow access to the ramparts. The walls are 4.3m thick and 2m high. The entrance is a plain 1.8m wide passage and located on the south-east side.

The interior of the stone fort is raised by about one meter, perhaps, to accommodate the souterrains. These are underground structures, normally consisting of one or more passages and chambers. Generally, they are drystone constructions but some are rock-cut. They functioned as places of refuge and storage and are common to many ringforts.

One souterrain is located on the north-east of the entrance leading into the wall. It extends into the wall, turns left and extends through the wall and leads into a short chamber. In the south-west part of the site is a flight of 8 steps, which leads into another souterrain passage. This passage extends to the south for 8.1m and under the wall. It then extends up into a ’creep’, designed to reduce access and put an attacker at a disadvantage. It turns west into a curving passage for a considerable distance.

Stone forts or cashels are the equivalent of earthen banked ring forts but are much less common. Ring forts are Ireland’s most common field monument with 45,000 recorded examples. Dating of ring forts is difficult but most of those that survive are thought to have been built well after the first century with many built or used right into the medieval period (800 – 1500 AD).

Stone forts or cashels belong mainly to the Early Christian Period (450 – 800 AD) but some date from an earlier time.

The introductions of iron weapons and structural changes to society are thought to have led to a great increase in cattle farming leading, in turn, to an increase in cattle raiding and warfare. Cattle were the real unit and source of wealth at this time. Many such sites give excellent views which suggest that they may have been built more for status than for defence.

Ballaghaderreen Bypass - Evidence of Prehistoric Occupation Revealed

An initial archaeological assessment by Irish Archaeological Consultancy Ltd, on behalf of the National Roads Authority, of the route of the new Ballaghaderreen Bypass has provided an opportunity to explore the rich archaeology of this area. Between August and October 2010 archaeologists undertook an examination of the 13.6 km-long route of the bypass and excavated fourteen areas.

The earliest archaeological evidence along the bypass was found in the townland of Toobracken where a series of pits and post-holes were excavated. Some of the pits were interpreted as hearths owing to the presence of scorched clay and charred hazelnuts. Prehistoric pottery was also found at the site dating from the Early Neolithic period (3900 – 3500 BC). Other pits and hearths were identified to the south of this site and these were found to contain a small number of chert and flint items. Another Neolithic site was identified at the eastern end of the bypass. A radiocarbon date of 2460 to 2150 BC was established for this site.

Archaeologists believe that these finds relate to a habitation site located on the edge of a shallow wetland. The stone tools recovered at this site are believed to represents Neolithic/Bronze Age activity.

Archaeologists also excavated seven burnt mounds in the townland of Bockagh located on marginal land between a wetland area and a drier slope to the north. These mounds consisted of kidney-shaped mounds of heat-shattered stone. The stones had been used to heat water in rectangular troughs some of which were wood-lined.

The trough discovered at Bockagh was lined with alder. The same wood together with oak, hazel and holly were used as stakes. It is conceivable that alder was deliberately chosen because of its waterproof qualities. The date range for this site was 1489-1317 BC to 1299-1059 BC. Another timber trough found at Bockagh showed evidence of the use of a number of axeheads to work the wood. This particular site was dated to 1900 – 1740 BC.

Three burnt mounds were also discovered at Bockagh with unlined troughs at two of these. Charcoal from one of the mounds gave a radiocarbon date of 1208-1012 BC. Evidence was also found of flint tool making in this area in later prehistory. A further three toughs and two associated burnt mounds were found in Bockagh. Alder, hazel, willow and oak had been used to line the troughs. The wood was radiocarbon dated 2461 -2209 BC to 1041-911 BC.

A further three burnt mounds were identified close to each other, south of the Lung River one of which was at Banada and the other two at Keelbanada. Two troughs were found beneath the mound at Banada. Planks of oak and ash, two split Alderwoods and stakes of ash and hazel were used to build the main trough at this site which was dated to 2009- 1771 BC.

Archaeologists discovered two shallow pit features containing charcoal at Teevnacreeva. One of the pits contained burnt animal bone and has been radiocarbon dated to AD20-220. What is thought to have been a medieval cooking pit dated AD1048-1218 was found at Toobracken. This pit was 1.4 m in diameter and 0.2 m deep and contained heat-fractured stones and charcoal rich clay. Evidence of a medieval settlement dated to AD1023-1155 was found in the area 600 m to the south east.

The archaeological excavations carried out revealed Bronze Age burnt mounds which would have been located deliberately on the edge of wetlands to ensure access to water. Archaeologists believe that settlement evidence for this period is likely to be located on the better drained surrounding slopes. The better drained land along the route revealed some evidence of Neolithic, Iron Age and early medieval activity and settlement indicating that this area has been occupied since early pre-history.