Migration is not Something New

Early Skulls

Until recently, the earliest evidence archaeologists had for human occupation in Ireland was dated to around 8000 BC. However, scientists have recently dated a fragment of butchered bear bone from a cave in County Clare to 10,500 BC, thereby, pushing back the date for human settlement in Ireland by 2,500 years. At a time of mass migration in the world it is, perhaps, timely to consider our origin as a species and how humans went on to inhabit the globe.

Humans and chimpanzees are very closely related and separated about 7.4 million years ago.  There is only a 1% difference between the chimpanzee genome and our own suggesting that we have a common ancestor.

Today, modern humans or Homo sapiens, inhabit the whole earth. Looking back over the last half a million years, the picture was much more diverse, with three distinct lineages appearing: Homo erectus in Asia; and Homo heidelbergensis giving rise to Homo neanderthalensis in Europe and Homo sapiens in Africa.

Image of Neanderthal Man

The Neanderthals thrived in Europe for around 300,000 years before modern humans arrived. The reason for the demise of this successful species remains a mystery. Neanderthals occupied Europe for at least 100,000 years during a period when glacial cycles dominated the climate. Excavations in Ibex, Vanguard, and Gorham’s Caves in Gibraltar have revealed evidence of Neanderthal occupation dating to possibly as late as 28,000 years ago. This makes Gibraltar the most recent Neanderthal occupation site yet discovered.

By 200,000 years ago, many innovations had been made in stone tool technology. For example, large handaxes became less common and were replaced with a range of smaller tools in more diverse toolkits. Tools made of flakes were favoured over large cores. Humans use tools to a much higher degree than any other animal and are the only existing species known to build fires, cook their food, wear clothes, and create art.

The first fossil evidence for any modern humans outside Africa comes from the Middle East, from  the archaeological sites of Skhul and Qafzeh in Israel, dating to around 120,000 years ago. However, this early expansion of modern humans was not maintained. A change to a colder climate may have driven those pioneers back into Africa. The expansion of our own species out of Africa that eventually led to the colonisation of the globe would start later – after 100,000 years ago.

Map showing the spread of humans

This dispersal out of Africa is believed to have started from Northeast Africa. Modern humans later spread worldwide, replacing earlier ancestors either through competition or interbreeding. They inhabited Eurasia (Europe and Asia) and Oceania (a region centred on the islands of the tropical Pacific Ocean) 40,000 years ago, and the Americas at least 14,500 years ago.)

Around 50,000 years ago, an improvement in the global climate, leading to the appearance of habitable lands where once there was desert, may have provided the opportunity for modern humans to spread into Europe.  Evidence from early modern human sites in Europe suggest that these early people moved into the continent along coasts and rivers, as they had done elsewhere.

Until about 10,000 years ago, humans lived as hunter-gatherers living in small nomadic groups, often in caves. Agriculture began independently in many parts of the world with different domesticated species. Hunter-gatherers already knew a great deal about plants and animals and often manipulated them or the environment to increase productivity. Farming entered Europe around 7000 BCE and was the main way of life across Europe by 4000 BCE.

Farming communities spreading into Central Europe around 5600 BCE had to adapt to bitter winters, heavy rainfall, and dense forests. They kept mainly cattle and farmed open river terraces. Farming spread through Western Europe and into other parts of Central, Northern, and Eastern Europe by 4000 BC.  Animals were initially kept for meat, hides, bones, and manure. Feeding animals on crop surpluses made them a food reserve, and large herds signified wealth and prestige. Domestic animals became far more important when people began using them also in other ways: for milk, wool, eggs, traction, and transport.

Examples of early metal working

The social importance of metals for making prestige objects with which people could show their status, led to the early development of metallurgy. Only later, with the development of alloys, did metal also become significant as a material for tools and weapons. Smelting copper and lead ores began in West Asia after 7000 BC, and by the sixth millennium BC casting was possible. By 2500 BC, metallurgy had spread through Europe. Bronze-working became widespread after 1800 BC with trade routes linking much of the continent circulating metals, particularly tin.

Prehistoric religion reflected people’s need to understand the world and explain disasters. Through rituals and offerings ancient societies sought to bribe or appease the divine forces controlling the world or its individual components. Since Neanderthal times, people have practised rites that showed concern for their dead, perhaps linked to a belief in an afterlife.

Newgrange Stone Age Passage Tomb

Burial in graves or tombs or under house floors, was common. Many societies practised other rites, including cremation, exposure, or disposal in watery places. Some thought it important to preserve the body and undertook mummification (for example, in Egypt and South America). Monumental tombs, such as tumuli, pyramids, and megaliths, could link the living and the dead to ancestral lands or sacred places.  

Humans and chimpanzees are very closely related and separated as recently as about 7.4 million years ago. Our ancient cousins, the Neanderthals thrived in Europe for around 300,000 years before modern humans arrived and may have survived until around 28,000 years ago. Innovation in stone tool technology aided the development and eventual spread of modern humans throughout the globe. Later developments in metal working and agriculture assisted this dispersal. Since Neanderthal times, people have practised rites that showed concern for their dead, perhaps linked to a belief in an afterlife.

Migration is not something new and, in a sense, we are all migrants whose ancestors were black and lived in Africa a long long time ago.

Further reading: Evolution - The Human Story (2011) by Dr.Alice Roberts

See also BBC DVD The Incredible Human Journey

Sunken Cities: Egypt’s lost worlds

Photo: Christoph Gerigk (c) Franck Goddio/HILTI Foundation

In previous posts, I have looked at archaeological sites preserved in water. Over 450 logboats or dug-out canoes have been recorded in Ireland mainly in lakes and rivers. For example, a remarkable assortment of 14 logboats has recently been discovered in Lough Corrib, Co. Galway, dating from the early Bronze Age (c. 2,500 BC) to the eleventh century AD.

Estimates of the number of crannogs found on Lough Gara, Co. Sligo, range from 145 to 369 although a maximum of 190 is more realistic. The archaeological evidence suggests that crannogs, or at least platforms, may have been built in this lake in the Late Mesolithic around 4,000 BC.

Across the Irish Sea, the Must Farm settlement in Cambridgeshire, England, is one of the most complete Late Bronze Age examples known in Britain. The settlement consists of five circular wooden houses, built on a series of piles sunk into a river channel below and seems to have been built around 1300 – 1000 BC.

The discoveries of Thonis-Heracleion and Canopus have challenged our perceptions of ancient Egypt. These two ancient cities thrived on the exchange and flow of people, goods and ideas, from around 300 years before Alexander the Great arrived in Egypt (332-331 BC). The cities sank beneath the sea over twelve hundred years ago. A large multinational team is studying the finds and the cities they came from and is slowly piecing together what life was like on the Canopic coast of ancient Egypt.

Thonis and Heracleion are mentioned as apparently separate cities in ancient Egyptian and Greek sources including the trilingual Decree of Canopus, issued in Egypt in 238 BC. Excavations on the site, however, provided evidence to prove that Thonis and Heracleion, were the same town. The underwater excavations uncovered the remains of a large sanctuary located on the central island, built from limestone blocks. Archaeologists recovered a pink granite naos (shrine) from which they established that the principal god of the temple was Amun-Gereb and that the name of the town was Heracleion.

Stele commissioned by Nectanebo 1 - Thonis-Heracleion
Photo: Christoph Gerigk (c) Franck Goddio/HILTI Foundation

A second discovery around the temple was an intact stele (a stone or wooden slab) bearing a decree by pharaoh Nectanebo 1 (r. 380-362 BC.) The stele indicates the Egyptian name of the town where it was erected: ‘The-hone-of-Sais’, that is, Thonis. The discovery of these two inscribed objects – the shrine of Amun-Gereb and the stele of Thonis-Heracleion – solved a mystery of historical geography. The archaeological site that archaeologists had located was both the Heracleion of the Greeks and the Thonis of the Egyptians.

Thonis-Heracleion was active from at least the seventh century BC, rising in primacy as the major trading centre in the fifth to fourth centuries BC. The excavations have revealed a sizeable collection of pottery and coins, the study of which reveals that supply of both to the city abruptly stops at the same time at the end of the second century BC. Shortly afterwards the main temples on the central island were destroyed in a catastrophic natural event. After the destruction of its major temples, the city appears to have been largely abandoned. Core samples taken from the sediments under the bay identified the characteristic signs of ‘liquefaction’, whereby the ground surface literally turns from a solid into a liquid.

Significant quantities of metals including copper, tin and iron, are listed among the imported goods brought to Egypt on Greek and Phoenician ships in a fifth century BC tax register, together with wine, oil, wool and wood. Egyptian exports to Greece included vital supplies of grain, but also natural resources such as alum and natron, which were especially important in dyeing. Egypt was well known for semi-luxury goods such as papyrus, perfume and amulets.

Religion and religious spaces (sanctuaries) played an important role in the lives of Egyptians and Greeks, as well as in their relations with each other. Religion could help in retaining one’s own identity and culture or provide a means of adapting to a foreign environment.

Pink Granite Garden Tank: Thonis-Heracleion
Photo: Christoph Gerigk (c) Franck Goddio/HILTI Foundation

Other significant artefacts were found around the temple. Close to the shrine of Amun-Gereb, a large basin of red granite was discovered, known as the ‘garden tank’ intended for the secret rituals known as the Mysteries of Osiris. Three immense red granite statues over five metres high, representing a king, a queen and Hapy, god of fertility, abundance and the flooding of the Nile, provide clear evidence of the temple’s scale and importance.

Excavation in the Grand Canal along the north side of the temple has revealed a substantial collection of artefacts that appear to have been ritually deposited in the waters. Many of these artefacts such as bronze ceremonial ladles, known as simpula, and ritual lead models of barques (boats), were associated with the Mysteries of Osiris, and help to illustrate the sacred character of this great waterway.

Colossal Statue of Pharoah
Photo: Christoph Gerigk (c) Franck Goddio/HILTI Foundation

Specially made lamps depicting deities spread across the Roman empire as far as Britain. A Roman lamp handle with Isis nursing Harpokrates (Horus-the-child) - c. AD 100-200), was found in Faversham, Kent, the Roman town of Durolevum. Faversham had a Romano-British temple and a Roman theatre. A temple of Isis was in use in London during the 2^nd and 3^rd centuries AD.

From at least as early as the Middle Kingdom (c.2055-1650 BC), the Mysteries of Osiris were the most important ritual celebrations to take place in Egypt each year. An effigy of the god, probably made during the Mysteries, emerged from the temple for a public procession in its golden barque (sailing boat), called Neshemet.

The excavations carried out in the towns of Thonis-Heracleion and Canopus by the European Institute for Underwater Archaeology, brought to light ritual deposits and instruments linked to the Mysteries of the month of Khoiak. These objects reveal the sacred character of the Grand Canal, the waterway that flowed along the north side of the temple of Amun-Gereb.

An exhibition at the British Museum entitled ‘Sunken Cities: Egypt’s lost worlds’ ends on 27^th November 2016.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3QOxsOlhQVg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ARDjbz_VdUw

Must Farm - England's Pompeii

Log Boat - Must Farm

In this post I cross the Irish Sea for a unique glimpse into the Late Bronze Age.

The Must Farm settlement in Cambridgeshire is one of the most complete Late Bronze Age examples known in Britain. The settlement consists of five circular wooden houses, built on a series of piles sunk into a river channel below and seems to have been built around 1300 – 1000BC.) Slightly later, between 1000 – 800BC, a wooden palisade was erected around the main platform.

At some point after the palisade was created a fire tore through the settlement, causing the platform to drop into the river below where the flames were immediately quenched. As the material lay on the riverbed it was covered with layers of non-porous silt which helped to preserve everything from wooden utensils to clothing. It is believed that when the platform burned down all activity at the settlement ceased and it was abandoned.

Pottery - Must Farm

Since the excavation began in August 2015, the Must Farm site has revealed everything from pottery to textiles and log boats to a wooden wheel. The settlement has one of the most complete Bronze Age collections of artefacts ever discovered in Britain, giving us an unparalleled insight into the lives of the people who lived there 3,000 years ago.

The roof of each round houses appears to have been made of rafters that joined in an apex over the centre of the building. It seems that turf was used to roof the homes owing to the large quantities of burnt turf deposited at the base of the channel. The presence of charred cereal roots in some of the turf suggests that the turf being used was cut from areas where crops had been cultivated.

The sediment also contained traces of clumps of burnt thatch which suggests the roof was made from reeds. This level of detail is something that most archaeologists would never expect to find when excavating a house of this period.

 Archaeologists believe that the floors of the roundhouses were made of large panels of woven, bundled willow-like wood supported by round wood. Several large well-preserved wattle panels were recovered from the site and archaeologists believe that these formed the walls of the structure.

3000 Year Old  Textile
           Must Farm

Among of the most delicate and striking items to survive are pieces of textile, which have remained intact for 3000 years. Bronze Age textiles from Britain are extremely rare and those that do survive are often in very poor condition and usually only tiny fragments survive. Incredibly, examples of textile from every stage of the manufacturing process have been recovered ranging from hanks of plant fibres, spools and balls of thread to woven textiles and twining.

The people who lived at Must Farm produced material of excellent quality. Some of the threads used in the creation of woven textiles are the diameter of a thick human hair. Each household seems to have been creating fabric and the preservation of these materials will provide a new level of understanding about textile production during the Bronze Age.

Very few of the artefacts found at Must Farm show any traces of decoration. All these artefacts have a very distinct style and appearance. This style appears to be a direct representation of the “fashion” of the day and were what people wanted in everything from pots to wooden objects.

The quantity and range of wooden artefacts found at Must Farm is undeniably astonishing. Large numbers of wooden objects have been recovered and many of these are unique and their purpose unclear. Very little of the wood seems to have been decorated or embellished in any way. For example, the dozens of wooden platters, buckets and vessels found are all undecorated and very simple in design but well-made and skillfully crafted.

Eight beautifully preserved prehistoric log boats were recovered during the excavation of Must Farm. Radiocarbon dating has indicated that the ages of these boats spanned a period of about 1000 years, with the earliest examples dating to around 1,750–1650 BC.

Wooden Wheel - Must Farm

In 2016 a large wooden wheel, measuring about 1 m in diameter, was uncovered at the site. The specimen, dating from 1,100–800 years BC, represents the most complete and earliest of its type found in Britain and reveals a high degree of craftsmanship.

Archaeologist found several buckets, also known as two-part vessels. These containers are made from hollowing out a section of log before inserting a base into the bottom of the log: creating a container. Alongside these finds archaeologists discovered a number of wooden “platters”, large and broadly flat objects carved from a single piece of wood.

Spear Head - Must Farm

Other finds from this site have included swords and spears which still had their handles intact. Bronze artefacts such as swords, spears and axes are often found in watery locations, such as lakes and rivers. There are many theories as to why metal is found in these locations, the most prevalent regarding it as a form of ritual, or votive, deposition. At Must Farm archaeologists have been fortunate enough to find metal artefacts still within their original use contexts inside the settlement.

Surprisingly, archaeologists have not found much refuse material at the site indicating that the settlement was fairly young when it was destroyed. Preliminary examinations of some of the timbers from both the palisade and the houses seems to show that the wood was still fresh when it was charred in the fire.

The Must Farm settlement in Cambridgeshire is one of the most complete Late Bronze Age examples known in Britain. The scale, quality and condition of the objects found at Must Farm have astonished archaeologists giving us an unparalleled insight into the lives of the people who lived there 3,000 years ago.

All photographs courtesy www.mustfarm.com

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i3pIcINYdAI

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qsBSTAHQ4OU&list=PLs5H4V1x-xBir3ePjpkgFIlRnYcBXUGOj

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LumBFOVNif8&index=2&list=PLs5H4V1x-xBir3ePjpkgFIlRnYcBXUGOj

In Search of our Irish Roots

Today, we commonly refer to the Irish, Scottish and Welsh as Celts who were thought to have migrated from central Europe around 500 BC. Much of what we think we know about the Celts was actually created in the 19^th century during the Celtic Revival. This version of history has, however, been challenged in recent times so where did the Irish come from?

The word ‘Celt’ (Greek Keltoi) was first used in writing in the 6^th Century BC to describe the people who lived north of the Greek Colony of Massalia, modern Marseille in southern France. The Celts were a loose grouping of tribes that lived in an area north of the Alps around the Danube river in central Europe. Over the next few hundred years they spread east and west across Europe and arrived in Ireland about 500 BC. By the fifth century AD and the arrival of Christianity, the Celtic language was being spoken all over the island of Ireland.

The relatively modern concept of an identifiable Celtic identity tends to focus on similarities of languages, works of art, and literature. Earlier theories suggesting a common racial origin for all the Celtic peoples have been rejected in favour of a common cultural and language heritage rather than a genetic one.

The Celtic languages form a branch of the larger Indo-European family of languages. The earliest examples of a Celtic language are Lepontic inscriptions from the sixth century BC. Lepontic was spoken in Italy’s Po Valley at this time. By 400 BC there were Celtic language groups spread throughout Europe including Ireland and Britain.

Only a limited number of records written in the Celtic languages survive from pre-Christian times and consist mainly of inscriptions written in the Roman and Greek alphabets. Ogham script, an Early Medieval alphabet, was mostly used in early Christian times in Ireland and Scotland for ceremonial purposes such as inscriptions on gravestones.

Four Celtic Languages continue to be spoken in modern Europe: Welsh, Breton, Irish Gaelic and Scottish Gaelic. Two other languages - Cornish and Manx Gaelic - survived into recent historical times. While the Celts spoke similar languages and shared much common culture, Continental Celts and those living in Britain and Ireland were different in important respects.

The ancient Celts were not so unlike the ancient Greeks, Romans and Germans in their values and beliefs. It has been suggested that, given time, the Celts would have developed an urban and technological civilisation of their own. If the Celts had settled in Rome after they seized the city in 390 BC instead of withdrawing, the history of European and European civilisation might have been very different.

The Celts worshipped hundreds of gods and goddesses. Celtic gods included Lugh and Dagda. Goddesses were associated with natural features such as rivers. For example, Boann was the goddess of the River Boyne.

In Celtic religion, druids acted as priests but also performed such roles as judges, sacrificers, teachers, and lore-keepers. The druids were an educated priestly class who had to serve up to a twenty-year apprenticeship in law, history, magic, medicine, poetry, astronomy and divination.

Gold Torc - National Museum of Ireland

The Celts are noted for their beautiful works of art. They wore brooches and armlets including the torc, which was a neck collar made of metal and, sometimes, gold. Examples of Celtic art can be seen in the intricate and beautiful metal work recovered from burial sites throughout Europe including Britain and Ireland.

Tribal warfare appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies. The Celts had a reputation as head hunters. The human head was venerated since the Celts saw this as the soul, centre of emotions and life itself.  Slavery, as practised by the Celts, is thought to have been similar to the practice in ancient Greece and Rome. Slaves were acquired from war, raids, and penal and debt servitude.

Ireland's remote geographical position has meant that the Irish gene-pool has been less susceptible to change and the same genes have been passed down from parents to children for thousands of years. Research into both British and Irish DNA indicate the people of both islands have much in common genetically. In other words, most people in the British Isles are descended from the same Stone Age Spanish settlers.

The latest research into Irish DNA has confirmed that the early inhabitants of Ireland were not directly descended from the Keltoi or Celts of central Europe. The closest genetic relatives of the Irish in Europe are to be found in the north of Spain in what is now known as the Basque Country. We share this common ancestry with the people of Britain and, in particular, with the Scottish.

Researchers believe that the movement of people from the north of Ireland into Scotland in the period 400 – 800 AD has meant that Irish and Scottish people share very similar DNA. Not only did Irish invaders bring the Gaelic language and culture to Scotland, they also brought their genes.

The Welsh were found to be 'pure Britons', according to the research. Scientists were able to trace their DNA back to the first tribes that settled in the British Isles following the last ice age around 10,000 years ago. The research found that there is no single 'Celtic' genetic group. The Welsh, Scottish, Northern Irish and Cornish were found to be the most different from the rest of the country.

Much of what we understand about our Celtic heritage derives from the so called Celtic Revival and has been challenged by scholars. The ancient Celts were a loose grouping of tribes that lived in an area north of the Alps around the Danube, sharing a common cultural and language heritage. They gradually spread east and west across Europe and arrived in Ireland about 500 BC. They were a religious, warlike people noted for their beautiful works of art. Research into both British and Irish DNA indicate the people of both islands have much in common genetically.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rGwUpsyDJTk

Irish Logboats

Callow Logboat, Lough Gara,
County Roscommon

Fifty years ago, while walking along the shore of Lough Gara with some friends, we were fortunate enough to find the remains of a logboat or dug-out canoe. The boat had broken into several pieces but we managed to put it together so that we could at least see what it would have looked like. Sadly, the sides of the vessel had completely disintegrated due to the ravages of time. The logboat had been brought to the attention of the National Museum of Ireland a few years earlier and is known as the Callow logboat. It was radiocarbon dated to the 9^th century.

This boat measured 8.3m in length and was just under 1m in width, tapering towards the stern and bow which were inclined upwards. Four pairs of ‘D’-shaped footrests had been carved into the floor of the boat at intervals of approximately 1m. It was not clear whether the boat was propelled by oars or paddles. Interestingly, a 5cm round hole had been cut through the floor 58cm from the bow.

Two other logboats have been recorded from Lough Gara. The Clooncunny 1 logboat was found near the edge of the lake just across the border in Co. Sligo in 1968 and dated to 1026 AD or 11^th century. Another logboat, known as Clooncunny 2, found near the River Boyle, Co. Roscommon, was dated to 1686 or 17^th century.

Over 450 logboats have been recorded in Ireland mainly in lakes and rivers. They were an everyday means of conveyance as well as acting as ferries to cross unbridged rivers. Logboats were utilised to transport livestock and farm produce and were used for fishing and wildfowling.

A logboat discovered on the foreshore of Greyabbey Bay, Strangford Lough (Co. Down) points to the existence of seafaring logboats in the Neolithic period. The boat, which was 9.35m in length has been dated to 3,499 – 3,032 BC, making it over 5,000 years old.

Small Logboat from
Lough Corrib

Lough Corrib Logboats

A remarkable assortment of 14 logboats has recently been discovered in Lough Corrib, Co. Galway, dating from the early Bronze Age (c. 2,500 BC) to the eleventh century AD. The oldest and largest logboat reported, a 12m-long dugout canoe found near Annaghkeen, was radiocarbon dated to 2,500 BC. Archaeologists believe that it could have been paddled by a crew of ten or twelve, suggesting that it was, perhaps, primarily intended for formal or ceremonial purposes.

A 6m long logboat dated to the eleventh century AD was found near the townland of Carrowmoreknock. Four of the boats seats or thwarts made from planks were still in place. It was rowed rather than paddled as evidenced by the remains of four pairs of thole-pin holes, which would have held the craft’s oars. A selection of weapons found within the boat - three battleaxes, an ironwork axe, two iron spearheads and the remains of what may have been a copper-alloy dagger pommel - suggest that it may have been carrying warriors. 

Another boat from Lough Corrib, known as Lee’s Island 5 logboat, still had two intact roundwood seats or thwarts in place. The overall shape of the 7.3m-long boat is rectangular and tapers slightly towards the bow. The two seats are located near either end which may indicate that it was used to transport cargo or to ferry people, with middle of the boat kept free to carry its load.

This logboat still contained part of its original contents including a 2m-long steering oar or paddle, an iron spearhead and a socketed and loop iron axe which had its wooden handle intact. The iron axe appeared to have been deliberately fixed into the boat with the intention of making it a permanent feature. It has been radiocarbon-dated to 754-409 BC placing it in the early Iron Age.

The use of logboats on Lough Corrib was widespread from at least the early Bronze Age. People living along its shores or on one of the many islands in the lake required boats to fish, exploit the lake’s natural resources, ferry people and goods, travel and to communicate with other parts of the lake or further afield.

The Lurgan Logboat
National Museum of Ireland

The Lurgan Logboat

The Lurgan logboat from Co. Galway is, perhaps, among the best know examples of this type of vessel as it has been on display in the National Museum of Ireland for many years. It tapers from the rounded stern to the bow which is also rounded. This is a flat-bottomed craft with the bow inclined upwards. When it was measured in 1902 it was recorded as 15.24m long.

Although the external hull was finished, the interior was not completed. The average thickness of the floor is 24cm, far in excess of the average floor thickness (7cm) of completed Irish dugout boats. Archaeologists believe that the Lurgan boat was designed for speed and manoeuvrability and unlikely to have been used as a cargo boat. The available evidence suggests that it was paddled and may have had a crew of as many as 35 or 36 people. It would have been a very fast boat.

Must Farm Logboats

Across the water in Britain, eight beautifully preserved prehistoric logboats have recently been found during a major archaeological excavation at Must Farm, near Peterborough, Cambridgeshire. The boats survived deep within the waterlogged sediments of a later Bronze Age/earlier Iron Age watercourse (1300-400 BC) in the Flag Fen basin. Radiocarbon dating has indicated that the ages of these boats covered a period of about 1000 years, with the earliest examples dating to around 1,750–1650 BC.

Logboat from Must Farm,
Peterborough, Cambridgeshire

Logboats or dug-out canoes have been used throughout the world for thousands of years and up to the present time in some places. Over 450 logboats have been recorded in Ireland alone mainly in lakes and rivers. They were an everyday means of transport for people living near lakeshores or on islands to fish, exploit the lake’s natural resources, ferry people and goods, and travel to places further afield. Today, logboats provide us with a window on the past and we marvel at the craftsmanship of these ancient peoples.

For further information, please see:

Archaeology Ireland – Winter 2014 (Issue No. 110)

http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue34/2/3-1.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dTQiXfrs42Q

http://www.mustfarm.com/bronze-age-river/more/

Re-writing Ireland's Ancient History

Fragment of Bear Bone from Cave

County Clare

The recent announcement that scientists had dated a fragment of bear bone to 10,500 BC, thereby, pushing back the date for human occupation in Ireland by 2,500 years, has caused quite a stir in the academic community. Until now, the earliest known human activity in Ireland was dated to the Mesolithic period around 8,000BC at Mount Sandel in Derry.

Remarkably, the bear bone was discovered in a cave in County Clare in 1903 but lay for over a century in a storage box in the National Museum of Ireland. Dr Marion Dowd of IT Sligo and Dr Ruth Carden of the National Museum decided to examine the bone and subject it to radiocarbon dating. Dr Dowd is a lecturer in Prehistoric Archaeology at IT Sligo’s School of Science and is a specialist in Irish cave archaeology.

Excavation in 1903

Tests revealed that the patella or knee bone of the brown bear – which showed clear marks of the animal having been butchered - dated back to the Palaeolithic period around 10,500 BC. Brown bears are believed to have become extinct in Ireland around 1,000BC. This incredible discovery is set to re-write Ireland’s settlement history showing that humans were hunting in Ireland much earlier than previously thought. A second round of radiocarbon tests confirmed that the bear died circa 10,500BC.

“Here we had evidence of someone butchering a brown bear carcass and cutting through the knee probably to extract the tendons. Yes, we expected a prehistoric date, but the Palaeolithic result took us completely by surprise,” said Dr Dowd.

Further analysis of the cut marks on the bone by experts from the British Museum, University of York and European University in Hungary revealed the marks were made on fresh bone and dated from the same era. Repeated attempts by early hunters to cut through the tough knee joint left seven marks on the bone surface. Experts think that the implement used would probably have been something like a long flint blade.

As the bone was in fresh condition it is thought that these early hunters were carrying out activities in the immediate vicinity - perhaps butchering a bear inside the cave or at the cave entrance. Dr Dowd believes they were extracting the tendons for use as string or for sewing, while the bear carcass would also have provided food and fur.

Some 12,500 years ago the last Ice Age was coming to an end in Ireland. As the ice retreated northwards, humans followed the thaw from central and southern Europe. Ireland was still connected to Britain at this point, as was Britain to mainland Europe. Ireland became an island about 8,700 years ago, as the last land bridges between here and Scotland were washed over.

It appears that archaeological text books may have to be re-written to reflect these new findings. This is particularly exciting given that experts have only recently started to appreciate the extent of human occupation in Ireland during the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age (8,000 – 4,000 BC) with about twenty important sites identified around Ireland. It has been argued that evidence for the Mesolithic Period in Ireland has gone largely unrecognised and where this exists the extent of the evidence has been overlooked.

Where did the first Irish settlers come from? Scholars believe that the most likely ‘homelands’ of the earliest human colonists in Ireland are Scotland, Isle of Man and Wales.

Archaeologists now hope to conduct a detailed examination of the cave itself using modern forensic equipment. Meanwhile, we wait with bated breath for the National Museum of Ireland to give up more of its fascinating secrets.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_CRQQ-loSo

Ireland Before St. Patrick

Image of an Ancient Crannog

As we approach yet another St. Patrick’s Day it is, perhaps, worth reflecting on what Ireland was like in pre-Christian times. We have to look to archaeologists and other scholars to provide us with an insight into the past. Yet, it is worth noting that, even today, we can still see glimpses of that pagan past all around us.

Ireland, in those days, was very different from Britain in many ways: it had its own language, political structures, customs and laws. It had not been invaded by Roman legions. It was also located at the furthest reaches of the known world.

Unlike Britain and Gaul, for example, the country did not have any major urban centres. Any political centres, such as they may have been, were likely to be associated with cult sites linked to kingship as in the case of Tara, Rathcroghan, Knockaulin and Armagh. As scholars often point out, the very word paganus ‘pagan’ actually means a rural dweller who lived in a pagus ‘rural environment’.

For Christian and non-Christians alike, death, burial, and the subsequent treatment of the dead, were purely matters for the family. The Christian clergy were not involved at all and pagans and Christians were buried alongside one and other in family graves.

Hill of Slane where St. Patrick
           Lit the Paschal Fire

The two prevalent burial types in Ireland from the late centuries BC and early centuries AD were cremations and inhumations, with the former more prevalent in the early period and inhumation becoming common into the first millennium AD.  Interestingly, cremation did not become obsolete, and instances of this practice have been dated to as late as the eight century.

Some non-Christian funerary customs continued to be practised, including burial in cemeteries not obviously associated with a church. Burned grain, antler tine and pig bones have been found in pre-Christian graves signifying some form of rite.

In 1959 the skeleton of a young woman, the skull of an infant approximately two years old, together with some animal bones (sheep/goat, dog and antler), were found in a bog in the townland of Derrymaquirk on the eastern side of Lough Gara, Co Roscommon. Archaeologists believe that the piece of antler may have been significant in terms of the religious beliefs of the time. This burial has been dated to between 750 - 200 BC.

Christian cemeteries or ‘holy ground’, in which most of the population were buried, developed from the late seventh century onwards. However, during the fifth and sixth centuries, burial practices for the nobility - clerics, kings and other aristocrats – began to change. This was due to what has been described as the cult of saints. Early Christians believed that by being buried near a holy grave they could hope to stand beside the saint on the day of the resurrection.

Decorated Grave Slab from Carrowntemple
Co. Sligo

We can also see the merging of pagan and Christian art as Christianity gradually replaced paganism. Two of the grave slabs at Carrowntemple, Co. Sligo, bear art of the Early Christian period that is derived from the Celtic art of the preceding Pagan Iron Age. One of these is very close to a design in the Book of Durrow and is datable to c. 650 AD. Several of the panels of the seventh century Moylough Belt-shrine, found only a few miles west of Carrowntemple, have this same mix of Pagan and Christian artwork.

Experts believe that many of the Irish Iron Age bog bodies are the remains of former kings who were sacrificed. The scarcity of such finds suggests that the sacrificial killings were only undertaken when a king’s reign had proven unsuccessful because of defeat in war, or due to famine or pestilence. The bodies were deposited in boundary bogs as offerings to the goddess who was associated with sovereignty, death and fertility.

Crucifixion Plaque
Clogher Holy Well

Early Irish texts suggest that holy wells may have remained associated with non-Christian rituals and were even protected by the old religion. For example, it is believed that wells were used instead of baptisteries in Ireland, which may explain the large number of holy wells throughout the country.

The Celts worshipped hundreds of gods and goddesses. In some respects, the nature of the Celtic religion helped in the development of Christianity. Their belief in the indestructibility of the souls of the dead helped in understanding the resurrection of Christ. The Celts also had their own sacrifices and ritual meals which, in a sense, mirrored aspects of Christian message.

Pagan Ireland was very different from Britain with its own language, political structures, customs and laws. The two prevalent burial types in Ireland from the late centuries BC and early centuries AD were cremations and inhumations with the former continuing late as the eight century. Christian cemeteries or ‘holy ground’ developed from the late seventh century onwards. Early Christian grave slabs show the merging of pagan and Christian art as Christianity gradually replaced paganism. Human sacrifice was practised in pagan times and Holy wells may have remained associated with non-Christian rituals.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b3vMGy2gQks

St. Patrick - Ireland's Patron Saint

Painting of St Patrick

Much controversy surrounds the details of St. Patrick's life. He is believed to have been British by birth, the son of a decurio or town councillor. His place of birth is said to have been somewhere in the west between the mouth of the Severn and the Clyde. He was born sometime between 385 and 389. Patrick himself tells us he was of Romano-British origin. The names of his parents were Calpurnius and Concessa.

While still a youth he was captured by Irish pirates and reduced to slavery. For six years he herded swine or sheep probably in Co. Antrim or on the coast of Co. Mayo. During the period of Patrick's captivity in Ireland he learned the native language and also got to know the pagan practices of the Druid priests.

Obeying a vision telling him to escape, he travelled two hundred miles to reach a ship he had been told to join. At first he was refused permission to travel but the master later rescinded. They sailed for three days landing, it is believed, on the coast of Gaul. Although Patrick eventually returned to his family he was constantly troubled by visions of the pagan Irish imploring him to walk among them once more.

Patrick was still a layman and, therefore, he could not go to Ireland without the priestly power to bring the sacraments. He set out for Rome but apparently never reached his intended destination. He broke his journey at Auxerre, attracted by the personality of its bishop, St. Amator. Under the guidance of St.Germanus he studied texts of the New and Old Testaments.

In 430, St. Germanus and St. Lupus of Troyes were chosen to travel to Britain. Some considered Patrick to be too lacking in learning and sophistication ignoring his wide practical experience of Ireland, his knowledge of its people and the pagan religion they practised. Pope Celestine selected Palladius instead for this important task. Patrick, however, never lost sight of his mission. Within a year Palladius died in the mission field and Pope Celestine authorised that Patrick be ordained bishop.

Patrick knew very well that if he was to succeed in Ireland then he must first convert the kings and chieftains. Otherwise, the people would not be allowed to worship in peace. It is said that Patrick's entourage resembled that of a modern day papal visit. He faced many dangers including assassination and the military might of kings and opposition of the powerful druids whose very existence he threatened.

Stone Cross - Cloonshanville,
Co.  Roscommon

It was the Chieftain Dichu who gave Patrick a plot of land on which to build his first church in Co. Down. St. Patrick spent many years in Ireland although exactly how long we do not know. During this time, he travelled extensively. He writes:

‘I journeyed among you, and everywhere, for your sake, often in danger, even to the outermost parts beyond which there is nothing, places where no one had ever arrived to baptise or ordain clergy or confirm the people.’

In some respects the nature of the Celtic religion helped in the development of Christianity. Their belief in the indestructibility of the souls of the dead helped in understanding the resurrection of Christ. The Celts also had their own sacrifices and ritual meals which, in a sense, mirrored aspects of Christian message.

Patrick did not discourage the druids from retaining their positions as lawyers, doctors, poets and musicians. Some writers have referred to a prophecy held by the Celts of

"...a man who was to come with a wedge-shaped head and shepherd's crook, his altar in the east of his house, who would encourage the people to cry "AMEN" to his call to worship."

Patrick had many followers. Benignus, the son of a chieftain, became his successor. Others were St.Auxilius, St.Iserninus and St.Fiacc, the son of Chief Brehom. His followers also included many influential women such as queens and the wives of Chieftains. Slave girls too, were prepared to suffer at the hands of their pagan masters for their faith.

At times he found it difficult to obtain suitable candidates. On one particular occasion he sent a plea to a friend asking him to recommend someone "preferably celibate but at least having only one wife and one child, and of sufficient wealth not to be tempted to line his pockets with bribes." His friend could only find one suitable candidate!

Patrick lit the paschal fire at Easter, which happened that year to coincide with the Feast of Tara. It was forbidden to kindle fire before Tara and the penalty for disobedience was death. Patrick's fire lit up the whole of Mag Breg, and the druids foretold that unless it was quenched the same night it would burn till Doomsday. Patrick reached agreement with the Druids for the teaching of Christianity which was to eventually replace paganism.

Patrick spent forty days and nights fasting on the top of Croagh Patrick, Co. Mayo. Archaeologists have discovered the remains of a church/oratory dating from the early Christian period on the top of this mountain. The entire summit was enclosed by a stone wall which may have been the enclosing wall of an early monastic site.

We are told that when the shadow of death came near, Patrick returned to the first church he had built at Soul, Co. Down and died on March 17th, 461. There is, however, some uncertainty as to the actual year of his death.

Legend has it that St. Patrick expelled snakes from Ireland, explained the Trinity using the shamrock, and accomplished single-handed great missionary tasks of conversion. Scholars doubt if there were ever snakes in Ireland.

St. Patrick remains the most popular of Irish saints. In art he is usually depicted wearing the vestments of bishop treading on snakes. In the National Museum of Ireland shrines survive of his bell and his tooth (12th & 14th century). His fame has spread throughout the world and we celebrate his feast day on 17th March.

Here are some short videos about St. Patrick from YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZTYQyv8e-x4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ybFfyNs_SzU